Facial artery branches

1. Inferior labial
2. Superior labial
3. Lateral nasal
4. Angular

Facial nerve branches

1. Posterior auricular nerve
2. Temperal
3. Zygomatic
4. Buccal
5. Marginal mandible
6. Cervical

Muscles of the larynx

All innervated by recurrent laryngeal nerve, a branch of vagus nerve, except specially listed.

1. Aryepiglottic muscle, oblique arytenoid
2. Transverse arytenoid
3. Posterior cricoarytenoid
4. Thyroepiglotticus
5. Thyroarytenoid
6. Lateral cricoarytenoid
7. Cricothyroid: superior laryngeal nerve
8. Vocalis

Neurons and Glial cells

1. Nissl body: RER, nissl stain
2. Axon, dendrite, hillock, Schwann cells, myelin sheath 
3. Endoneurium, perineurium, epineurium

Cardiac muscle and smooth muscle

• Cardiac muscle:

1. Intercalated discs: special desmosomes junction, for structure integrity
2. Gap junctions: perpendicular to intercalated discs, on the side of cardic muscles, transmit electricity

• Smooth muscles:

1. Dense body, instead of Z line
2. Spindle shape

Muscles of pharynx

1. Stylopharyngeus: glossopharyngeal nerve
2. Salpingopharyngeus: accessory nerve
3. Superior pharyngeal constrictor: accessory nerve
4. Middle pharyngeal constrictor: accessory nerve
5. Inferior pharyngeal constrictor: upper part: accessory nerve; lower part: recurrent laryngeal nerve and superior laryngeal nerve

Palate muscles

1. Levator veli palatini: accessary nerve
2. Tensor veli palatini: mandibular branche of trigeminal nerve
3. Palatoglossus: accessary nerve
4. Palatopharyngeus: accessary nerve
5. Musculus uvulae: accessary nerve

Extrinsic tongue muscle

1. Genioglossus
2. Chondroglossus
3. Hyoglossus
4. Styloglossus
5. All innervated by hypoglossal nerve.
   
   

External eye muscle

• Levator palpebrae superioris:

1. Forms levator aponeurosis
2. Inserts on superior tarsal plate and skin of upper eyelid
3. Oculomotor nerve

• Superior rectus: oculomotor nerve
• Superior oblique: trochlear nerve
• Medial rectus: oculomotor nerve
• Lateral rectus: abducens nerve
• Inferior rectus: oculomotor nerve
• Inferior oblique: oculomotor nerve

Two muscles of the middle ear

• Tensor tympani

1. Mandibular branch of trigeminal nerve
2. Reduce chewing sounds and loud noise

• Stapedius

1. Facial nerve
2. Reduce chewing sounds and loud noise

Differences among skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle

• Skeletal muscle:

1. Striated
2. Unbranched
3. Z line
4. Multinuclei, peripheral
5. T tubules forms triad at A-I junction
6. No gap junctions

• Cardiac muscle:

1. Striated
2. Branched
3. Z line
4. One nucleus, center
5. T tubules forms dyad at Z line
6. Intercalated discs, gap junctions

• Smooth muscle:

1. No striated
2. No Z line
3. Dense bodies
4. One nucleus
5. No T tubules
6. Gap junctions

Scaffolding proteins of skeletal muscles

1. Nebulin: along actin to Z line
2. Titin: along myosin to Z line

Two types of skeletal muscle

• Red skeletal muscle fibers:

1. Type I
2. high myoglobin & mitochondria content
3. aerobic
4. low ATPase
5. slow movement muscle, posture-maintainig muscle

• White skeletal muscle fibers:

1. Type II
2. low myoglobin & mitochondria content
3. anaerobic
4. high ATPase
5. fast movement muscle: eye muscles, hands, legs

Skeletal muscle

1. Sarcolemma (muscle cell membrane), endomysium (CT arround sarcolema), perimysium, epimysium
2. Multiple nuclei, peripheral
3. Limited ability to regenerate
4. Stem cells: satellite cells. Low satellite cell numbers in muscular dystrophy.

Two types of bone formation

• Intramembranous bone formation:

1. From mesenchymal cells
2. No cartilage formation
3. Forms primary spongy bone, spicules, lacunae, osteocytes, skull

• Endochondral bone formation:

1. From hyaline cartilage
2. Forms long bones, vertebrae, pelvis bones
3. Epiphyseal plate: reserve zone, zone of proliferation, zone of hypertrophy, bone marrow.

Osteoclasts

1. Hematopoietic stem cells -> monocyte (from blood or bone marrow) -> osteoclasts
2. Osteoclast has multiple nuclei. Eosinophilic, pink.
3. Break down bone matrix.

Haversian canal

1. osteoprogenitor cells
2. osteoblasts
3. blood vessels
4. osteocytes in lacunae
5. circumferential lamellae
6. canaliculi between lacunae, gap junctions

Bone

• mesenchymal cells -> osteoprogenitor cells -> osteoblast

1. Compact bone: solid mass
2. Spongy bone or cancellous bone: trabecular, bone marrow

• Bone matrix: osteoid (hydroxyapatite), type I collagen, glycoaminoglycans (GAGs)
• Osteoblasts: secrete bone matrix, basophilic, blue, one nucleus.

Three types of cartilage

• Hyaline cartilage:

1. for bone formation
2. articular surface of joints, nose, larynx, trachea, bronchi
3. hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, keratin sulfate
4. high water content, perichondrium
5. Rheumatoid arthritis damages articular cartilage
6. Uric acid crystals in joints -> gout

• Elastic cartilage:

1. type II collagen, elastic fibers
2. external ears

• Fibrocartilage:

1. type I, II collagen
2. intervertebral disk, menisci of knee, attachment of tendons and ligaments
3. less water content, no perichondrium

Cartilage Growth

1. Appositional growth: outside, increase width
2. Interstitial growth: inside, increase length

Cartilage matrix

1. Immature: more collagen than glycoaminoglycans (GAGs), acidophilic, pink staining
2. Mature: more GAGs than collagen, basophilic, blue staining
3. Blood vessels can't penetrate cartilage.

Cartilage

1. mesenchymal cell -> chondroid progenitor cell -> chondroblast -> chondrocyte
2. Chondroid matrix: perichondrium, stem cells ->> fibroblast, chondroid progenitor cell
3. Chondroblast: type II collagen, glycoaminoglycans (GAGs) 

Connective Tissue

1. Normal connective tissue: loose CT, submucosa, papillary dermis of the skin; dense CT
2. Dense connective tissue: dense regular CT, tendon, bone, cornea; dense irregular CT: dermis, organ capsules
3. Specialized connective tissues: bone, cartilage, bone marrow, adipose tissue

• Permanent resident cells: fibroblast -> fibrocyte, myofibroblast (smooth muscle + fibroblast), osteoblast, adipocyte
• Permanent guest cells: macrophages (from monocyte), mast cells (histamine)
• Transient cells: basophils, eosinophils, lyphoncytes, monocytes, neutrophils, plasma cells

1. Extracellular matrix: collagen, elastin, fibrillin, fibronectin; proteoglycans, glycoproteins
2. Collagen: Gly-X-Y triple helix
3. Collagen synthesis: RER (prepro-alpha chain) -> Golgi (hydroxylation, Vc, glycosylation) -> triple helix -> procollagen secreted -> propeptides cleaved -> tropocollagen -> fibrils, lysyl oxidase, Cu+. Scurvy: Vc deficiency -> hydroxylation deficiency. Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome: collagen, lysine hydroxylase gene mutations, procollagen can't turn into tropocollagen.

• Type I collagen: most, tendon, ligaments, bone, skin, cornea. Osteogenesis Imperfecta: collagen gene mutation; "blue sclera"
• Type II collagen: cartilage, intervertebral discs, vitreous body of the eye
• Type III collagen: reticular fibers, blood vessels, PAS, silver stain
• Type IV collagen: basal lamina

1. Elastic fibers: elastin, fibrillin, artery wall, alveolar wall, skin. Marfan syndrome, fibrillin gene mutation on chromosome 15.
2. Reticular fibers: type III collagen, lymphatic tissues, bone marrow, liver stroma

• Fibronectin: binds to collagen, etc; cell interactions
• Proteoglycans: glycoaminoglycans attach to a protein core, sulfated residues, "-" charge, attach to hyaluronan by linker protein
• Glycoproteins: laminin (basement membrane), binds to integrins via entactin (link laminin to type IV collagen)

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2012.09.12 iPhone 5
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Epithelium

1. Simple squamous: endothelial layer of blood vessels, glomerulus of kidney,
2. Simple columnar: small intestine; brush border, microvilli, goblet mucus cells
3. Simple cuboidal: proximal tubule, microvilli, collecting duct of kidney
4. Pseudostratified columnar: respiratory system, all on basement membrane, basal cells = stem cells, goblet mucus cells, ciliated columnar absorptive epithelial cells, true cilia
5. Stratified squamous: skin, basal layer, light color melanocyte, Langerhans cells (immune)
6. Stratified cuboidal: salivary gland duct, sweat gland duct 
7. Transitional epithelia: bladder

• Parotid gland: pure serous cells
• Submendibular gland and sublingual gland: mix of serous cells (dark color) and mucus cells (light color)

Cell Surface Structures

1. Ca2+ dependent: cadherin, selectin
2. Ca2+ independent: integrin

Intercellular junctions:

• Tight junctions (zonula occludens): luminal side of epithelial, actin; occludin, claudin; "one electron dense line"
• Adherens junctions (zonula adherens): below tight junctions, actin, belt; cadherins; invasion; "two electron dense line"
• Desmosomes (macula adherens): below adherents junctions, keratin, intermediate filaments; cadherins; "button"
• Hemidesmosome: basal lamina, intermediate filaments; integrin
• Gap junctions: pores, connexins; Ca2+, cAMP

Surface structures:

1. Microvilli: luminal side, actin; epithelial cells in intestine, proximal tubule of kidney, and respiratory systems; increase surface area
2. Stereocilia: long, branched microvilli: epididymis; long microvilli: hair cells of inner ear 
3. True cilia & flagella: "9 + 2", 9 peripheral pairs and two microtubules in the center; ATPase dynein; respiratory tract, sperm tails; basal body; Kartagener syndrome

Cytoskeleton

1. Microfilament (actin): G-actin monomer; F-actin helix; + end polymerization, need ATP; - end depolymerization; motility, contractile ring in mitosis, microvilli.
2. Intermediate filament (tissue specific): Type I: keratin, epithelial; Type II: desmin, muscle, vimentin, fibroblasts, blood vessel SM, endothelial, glial fibrillary acidic protein, glial cell, peripherin, axon; Type III, neurofilament; Type IV, neuclear envelop lamin. Alzheimer's disease, cirrhotic liver diseases.
3. Microtubule: transport contents; cilia, flagella, mitotic spindle, dynein, ATP; dynein retrograde, kinesin anterograde. Gout, colchicine. Vinblastine, vincristine, cancer.

Microfilament and microtubule are continuously assembly and disassembly. Intermediate filaments are stable.

Peroxisome

Peroxisome = microbody

1. H2O2
2. Catalase: H2O2 -> H2O + O2
3. beta-oxidation: C24 -> ~C10
4. Replenish membrane phospholipid
5. Bile acid & cholesterol
6. Zellweger syndrome: empty peroxisome

Lysosome

Lysosome:

1. Primary: new from Golgi
2. Secondary: combined with contents
3. Acid hydrolyses pH 5.0
4. breakdown lipids

Golgi Apparatus

Golgi apparatus:

1. Cut proinsulin to C-peptide and insulin by peptidase. Hyperproinsulinemia. NIDDM.
2. P is added to mannose in glycoproteins which is targeted to lysosomes. I-cell disease. Instead of targeting to lysosomes, those glycoproteins target to outside of the cell. Lysosomes are deficiency, and form inclusion bodies.

SER Function

SER function:

1. Phospholipids, TG, steroid.
2. Hydroxylation: add -OH by cytochrome P450.
3. Conjugation: add glucuronic acid.
4. Glycogen degradation, gluconeogenesis: remove P from G-6-P.
5. Lipolysis: remove fatty acid from TG.
6. =Sarcoplasmic reticulum in muscle: storage and release Ca2+.

Protein from Ribosomes to Where

Polysomes = mRNA + multiple Ribosomes


Protein from ribosomes to where:

1. Free ribosomes: mitochondria, nucleus, peroxisomes. (MNP)
2. Membrane-bound ribosomes: membrane, lysosome, secretary. (MLS)

Nucleus Numbers

1. Hepatic cell has two nuclei.
2. Osteoclast cell and megakaryocyte have multiple nuclei.
3. Red blood cell has no nucleus.
4. Most cells have one nucleus.

Nucleolus Zones

Nucleolus three zones:
1. Granular zone: peripheral, dense, precursor of rRNA (RNA+protein)
2. Fibrillar zone: middle, dense, RNA only
3. Fibrillar center: center, light, transcription inactive DNA